Altruism

Altruism Altruism occurs when one individual, while helping others, selflessly incurs a danger to themselves decreasing their chances of survival Sherman (1977). Two theories develop from altruism, kin selection theory and the theory of reciprocal altruism. Kin selection theory of altruism argues that altruism was developed to increase the survival of relatives Hamilton (1964) and that acts of altruism should be directed towards family rather than non-relatives. (Trivers, 1971; Cosmides Tooby 1992) argued that the theory of reciprocal altruism is infact long-term cooperation and the assistance that is given at the time will be reciprocated another time in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to remember who has helped them before and not offer any assistance to those who have failed to reciprocate. For this theory to be successful it also requires a somewhat stable group as short term, migrating members may not be able to upkeep the promise to perform the required act at a later date. The theories of kin selection and reciprocity, although seemingly different are not incompatible. Sadly, altruism does not always happen. Environmental factors play a very large part in whether an individual will engage in acts of altruism. Socialization, modelling and reinforcement play a key role in promoting pro-social behaviour and attitudes Eisenberg Mussen (1989); Janoski et al. (1998). When children are exposed to models of kindness and helping, be it from television or from others around them, they are more likely to put the welfare of humans and other animals above their own Sprafkin et al (1975). Television programmes that show these acts influence a strong positive effect on the viewers pro-social behaviour Hearold (1986). The norm of reciprocity and the norm of social responsibility are especially relevant to helping behaviour (De Creamer van Lange, 2001; Miller at al., 1990). The norm of reciprocity that we should return the favour when someone treats you kindly and the norm of social responsibility expects that we should help others and contribute to societys welfare. When we live by these norms we are reinforced with praise and when we do not we feel guilt and receive disapproval. In society we also notice when others receive praise for adhering to these norms. As humans get older, pro social norms, morals and values are internalized and form strong self reinforcements like pride and satisfaction to maintain pro-social behaviour even when positive reinforcement is not available. Studies by Eisenberg Valiente (2002) confirm that socialization matters as children are more likely to act pro-socially when raised by parents who have high moral standard and are warm and supportive encouraging their chi ldren to feel empathy and to â€Å"put themselves in other peoples shoes† (Janssens Dekovic, 1997; Krevans Gibbs, 1996). Beliefs about why and when to help have cross cultural differences such as the study done by Miller (1990) who found that Hindu children and adults in India have the belief that one has a moral obligation to help friends or strangers no matter if the situation is mild or serious. When compared to the Indias Hindus way of thinking, American children and adults differ in their view and feel less obligated to help and regard as more of a choice Eckensberger Zimba (1997). Most pro social acts are done with the expectation of a reward of self reinforcement or a form of reciprocity but humans are capable of committing a selfless act of aiding someone without concern for ones wellbeing, an act of altruism. C. Daniel Batsons empathy altruism hypothesis suggests that altruism does exist and is caused by empathy which is the ability to put oneself in the place of another and to share the emotions being felt by that person (Batson, 1991; Batson et al., 2002). In an experiment conducted by Batson et al (1981) female students empathy for another female who was an accomplice to the experiment was increased and decreased by leading them to identify and believe that her values were similar and dissimilar to their own. The experiment is consistent with the empathy altruism hypothesis showing that high empathy participants were most likely to voluntarily change places but is it people reacting out of pure virtue of empathy or is it to avoid the guilt that may plag ue them for not interfering. The negative state relief model suggests that high empathy cause us to feel distress when we learn of others suffering and by helping them relieve their own stress it reduces their personal stress making their actions non altruistic (Cialdini et al., 1997). The term â€Å"safety in numbers† doesnt translate well in emergencies and help the victim as the more people present encourages each person not to help because of social comparison or diffusion of responsibility and is more likely to occur when the bystanders are strangers and not kin or friends of the victim Latanà © Rodin (1969). Factors that explain why people may be helpful in some situations but not others. We are more likely to help when we are in a good mood (Salovey et al., 1991). Pre-exisiting guilt when were feeling guilty about something weve recently done increases helping Regan et al (1972). Even though feeling guilt and being helpful are two different actions guilt helps increase our likelihood of assisting others. Also when there is a model to follow such as someone helping a motorist or giving blood, this act increases social behaviour (Sarason et al., 1991). When we are not under pressure, have extra time and not in a hurry we help more. Factors that show why some people may receive help more than others: Similarity A person is more likely to help and identify with the victims situation when the victim things similar to them such as dress, attitudes and nationality (Dovidio, 1984). Gender Women and men are equally likely to be helped by female bystanders but women are more likely to receive help more than men when aid is from a male bystander (Eagly Crowley, 1986). Perceived Responsibility When someone is in need of help and their situation is viewed as something caused by factors beyond their control, they are more likely to receive help such as people who have been affected by a natural disaster versus homeless people who are perceived to be unwilling to work (Blader Tyler, 2002; Weiner, 1996). Lerner (1980)s just world hypothesis suggests that people believe that the world is a just place and the rule of karma prevails. They perceive that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. These beliefs have the effect on some to conclude that persons who have misfortunes such as being raped or contracting AIDS deserve their fate (Ford et al., 1998; Wyer et al., 1985) thereby justifying why they shouldnt help the individual as there is no responsibility to help. A way to increase Pro-social Behaviour is through â€Å"mandatory volunteerism† which is used in the academic and corporate world. Participants increased volunteerism in later life from these acts are not consistent as seen in research done by (Janoski et al., 1998;Stukas, 1999). Their research show that the outcome depends on personal rewards that the volunteers will receive and the awareness of human needs. A second approach which is consistent to the social learning theory is the exposure of pro social models to people. This is used to promote blood drives and increase donations (Sarason et al., 1991). When feelings of empathy are established and people are properly socialized will increase the chances of those people helping others Eisenberg (2000) as well as those who feel a close connection to their communities will feel socially responsible to help others Clark, M (1978). If society is educated and exposed to helping models and information, bystander intervention may be decreased and the tendency to help others in an emergency, increased Beaman, A.L. et al (1978).

Drama assignment Essay

Hale is one of the most important characters in The Crucible. All of the characters contribute to the problems in Salem to some extent. But Hale is the catalyst to the hysteria beginning and it is how is awareness of this increases through the play that causes the major changes we see in his character.  Hale himself, as we are told by miller, â€Å"†¦nearing forty, a tight skinned eager eyed intellectual.† He feels great pride at being asked to come and identify the signs of witchcraft and sees it as a compliment to his experience in his chosen field. Unlike the other characters his experience gives him no reason to jump to the immediate conclusion of the involvement of the devil. Because of this he is perhaps the most common sense of the officials in Salem. Hales entrance in act 1 creates a big change in the direction of the scene, but it is important to remember he is unaware of this. How miller uses Hales entrances effectively is that he calms down the situation between Giles and Putnam when they cease their argument at his arrival but eventually he will excite the scene even more with his powerful redemption of Tituba and Abigail.  After his initial entrance in act 1 Hales attitude is reasonably light hearted as he greets the other characters, he refers to the devil in an of hand way as â€Å"the old boy†. Yet he still treats the situation in all seriousness as he listens to the Putnams talking about their daughters ailment, picking up clues from what people say. When Hale is investigating the supernatural, leafing through his books, asking questions and listening to the other characters etc, it should be shown that he does not treat this as a chore or just his job, but that he is genuinely interested and eager, his investigations are what drives him.  His attitudes to the other characters in the early part of act 1 are interest in meeting people he has heard of, and his respect for the more â€Å"†¦distinguished company.† who are there. His use of the phrase shows a wish to make a good impression with those who are higher in the village, but his interest in meeting Rebecca Nurse and talking to Giles shows that he is in no way biased to position. As we enter the increasingly hysterical ending to this act, Hales role in causing this is obvious. His quickening questioning of her is perhaps caused by his anger at her apparent lack of concern for Bettys condition and her attempts to evade answering his questions. † (grasping Abigail): abigail it may be your cousin is dying. Did you call the devil last night? † â€Å"you cannot evade me, Abigail.†Ã‚  Hale is excited at the end of act 1 because he believes he has got to the root of the problem when Tituba and Abigail â€Å"redeem† themselves and pass the blame to Good and Osburn. Because of this both hale and Parris see the problem as ending not beginning. Hale has obviously seen the situation last a lot longer than he expected when he enters in act 2. â€Å"he is different now- drawn a little, and there is a quality of deference, even of guilt, about his manner now.† This shows us the beginning of his realisation of the consequences of the accusations that he has caused to be made.  This is the second time Hales entrance changes the course of events in both this act and for the rest of the play without him knowing it, his entrance has stopped John Proctor from leaving just when he had built himself up to confront Abigail to stop the accusations, so he makes things worse again, but still unintentionally. His attitudes to the Proctors in this act are mixed. He sees them as good and honest people, but knows that there is evidence that would say otherwise even if none of its serious enough to entirely incriminate them. His nervousness is also caused by him being unsure how to tell them Elizabeth has been accused, without making it sound like he is accusing them himself.  We last see Hale in the final scene of Act Four we see the total change in his opinions to the authority of the court, the guilt of those charged and in his faith. His motivation is now to try and save proctor from his fate. He is confused and wrought because of how his faith has caused so many problems. To conclude, Hale changes most of all the characters, yet like the others he changes in that his main characteristics are strengthened. His honesty and sense of public duty are there throughout the play, how they change is to which end they’re directed. He is initially convinced of the presence and existence of witchcraft, and works vigorously to combat it in the only he knows how. Yet he is the only of the prosecutors who is convinced of the innocence of the accused, he still believes his first duty is the protection of others, but loses his principles to do so at the end. He is more open minded and humane than the others, but the message of the play tells us to reject the position to which he finally comes. He doesn’t reject just the religious fanaticism of the times but rejects religion itself. His attempts to save John Proctor ultimately fail, because in turning his back on the church, he has turned his back on what Elizabeth believes is right, and so his argument is worthless to her.  Perhaps Millers idea in Hale is that where the simple farmer sees the mistake in preferring life over personal integrity the learned Hale does not.

Analysis Of Setting In “The Lottery” Essay

Analysis of Setting in â€Å"The Lottery† Setting, the time, location, and objects in which the events of a literary work occur. This important factor is needed to help the reader familiarize himself with what he is reading. Many writers use setting to â€Å"establish a realistic background, transport us to strange and exotic places, or even to create a certain mood† (Paschal 4). For example, setting as described in â€Å"The Lottery† is a small present day town on a clear and sunny summer day. Shirley Jackson makes this known because it sets the mood in the beginning for the ironic turnaround at the end. With her intent to shock the reader she uses key points the first of such is the time period that the story takes place. Jackson’s story takes place during the beginning of summer right around the time that school is let out for summer recess. Second is the location of the lottery. She has the drawing held in the middle of town, the same place that they hold all of there family events. Third would be the actual black box that they put the ballots in, she uses this as a symbol of tradition. Jackson’s brilliant use of setting ironically shows her intent to instill shock in the minds of her readers. As we study further into the setting of Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† we come to the first key point which is the time period that the story takes place. Jackson states that it is June 27th, which can be associated with the summer solstice, or the longest day of summer. This day has also been known to have ritualistic overtones. The year is left open to give the reader the sense that the story is current. The time is set at around 10:00am and it says that the flowers are blossoming and that the grass is richly green (Paschal 124). This is to give the reader a feeling of serenity as Jackson wants the reader to feel as if this were an ideal town on an ideal day. She sets a time frame for the actual lottery to occur. Since the lottery last approximately two hours it must start at 10:00 so that they can be home in time for noon dinner (Paschal 124). This gives the reader the idea that this event is a common ritual and that they have a set schedule to go by. All of this sets the reader up for the ironic twist at the end of the story. In a sense Jackson uses this ideal town as a camouflage to hide her true intent. The next of Jackson’s key points is the actual location of the lottery. She  sets the lottery in the middle of town between the bank and the post office (website 1). This part of town is know as the Town Square and is the place where they hold most of there family activities (Paschal 124). Since the story is set in broad daylight you can visualize all the families congregating like one would for a local community picnic. It says that the children are breaking in boisterous play and the men are talking about planting and rain, tractors and taxes (website 1). The buildings that Jackson uses are symbolic and put across a strong message. The bank is a symbol of wealth or money, while on the other hand the post office is a symbol of government. One could say that the point being made here is that she uses these symbols in correlation with the lottery to say that whenever money and the government are involved there is corruption. At this point in the story Jackson would have the r eader to believe that a town that appears to be so normal couldn’t commit such an unthinkable action at the towns’ family meeting place in broad daylight. The third and final key point used is the black box. Jackson uses this as a symbol of many things, one being tradition. The box is described as being shabby, splintered, faded and even stained (Paschal 125). This symbol of tradition clearly shows how this society or culture is afraid of change. Not only does the black box symbolize tradition it symbolizes fear. As the box is introduced in the story it changes the mood of the people. Jackson states that as the box is placed on the stool, the villagers kept there distance (Paschal 125). â€Å"The box embodies all of the evil acts executed in the past and the ones to come† (website 2). One would think that if they were so afraid of this box why not make another one or even do away with the ritual completely. Perhaps their fear of change is stronger than their fear of fear itself. To these people the black box holds the key to life and death. Jackson’s use of the black box as a symbol demonstrates shock in that the people o f this society would rather hold on to a greater evil rather than loose a lesser one. As noted above in the analysis of setting in Shirley Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† we found that setting can be an important factor in any story because it sets an atmosphere that the reader can use to explain certain events within  a story. For example, in Steven Cranes â€Å"The Bride comes to Yellow Sky† the setting is in what is known as the Wild West. Without the reader knowing this they wouldn’t be able to relate to Scratchy wearing cowboy clothes and shooting his guns in the bar. Another example would be in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth in which Shakespeare uses medieval Europe as the setting. Without knowledge of this you wouldn’t be able to explain why people would kill there own relatives just to gain power, or to even explain why it was common practice to consult a witch for advice. For some that was a common thing for people of Europe in that time period. In essence the appropriate use of setting to illustrate a writer’s i ntent in a story can be an effective way to have ones reader be able to relate to what he is reading. mWebsite 1- Various English Essays: Irony of Setting in â€Å"The Lottery† www.cheathouse.com/restricted/essays/ess1/348.html Website 2- Chuck III’s College Resources â€Å"† Theses & Dissertations â€Å"† lottery www.chuckiii.com/reports/theses_&_ Dissertations/lottery.shtml Paschal, Hugh H. A Formalistic Approach to Freshan Composition. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 2000

Civil Rights Movement Timeline From 1965 to 1969

This civil rights movement timeline focuses on the struggles final years when some activists embraced black power, and leaders no longer appealed to the federal government to end segregation, thanks to the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Although the passage of such legislation was a major triumph for civil rights activists, Northern cities continued to suffer from de facto segregation, or segregation that was the result of economic inequality rather than discriminatory laws. De facto segregation was not as easily addressed as the legalized segregation that had existed in the South, and Martin Luther King  Jr. spent the mid-to-late 1960s working on behalf of both black and white Americans living in poverty. African-Americans  in Northern cities became increasingly frustrated with the slow pace of change, and a number of cities experienced riots. Some turned to the black power movement, feeling that it had a better chance of rectifying the sort of discrimination that existed in the North. By the end of the decade, white Americans had moved their attention away from the civil rights movement to the Vietnam War, and the heady days of change and victory experienced by civil rights activists in the early 1960s came to an end with Kings assassination  in 1968. 1965 On Feb. 21, Malcolm X is assassinated in Harlem at the Audubon Ballroom apparently by Nation of Islam  operatives, although other theories abound.On March 7, 600 civil rights activists, including Hosea Williams of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and John Lewis of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), leave Selma, Ala., traveling eastward on Route 80 toward Montgomery, Ala. They are marching to protest the killing of Jimmy Lee Jackson, an unarmed demonstrator slain during a march the prior month by an Alabama state trooper. State troopers and local police stop the marchers at the Edmund Pettus Bridge, beating them with clubs as well as spraying them with water hoses and tear gas.On March 9, King leads a march to the Pettus bridge, turning the marchers around at the bridge.On March 21, 3,000 marchers leave Selma for Montgomery, completing the march without opposition.On March 25, around 25,000 people join the Selma marchers at the Montgomery city l imits.On Aug. 6, President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act into law, which bans discriminatory voting requirements, like requiring people to complete literacy tests before they registered to vote. White Southerners had used this technique to disenfranchise blacks.On Aug. 11, a riot breaks out in Watts, a section of Los Angeles, after a fight erupts between a white traffic officer and a black man accused of drinking and driving. The officer arrests the man and some of his family members who had arrived at the scene. Rumors of police brutality, however, result in six days of rioting in Watts. Thirty-four people, mostly African Americans, die during the riot. 1966 On Jan. 6, SNCC announces its opposition to the Vietnam War. SNCC members would feel increasing sympathy for the Vietnamese, comparing the indiscriminate bombing of Vietnam to racial violence in the United States.On Jan. 26, King moves into an apartment in a Chicago slum, announcing his intention to start a campaign against discrimination there. This in response to the increasing unrest in Northern cities over prejudice and de facto segregation. His efforts there are ultimately deemed unsuccessful.On June 6, James Meredith embarks on a March Against Fear from Memphis, Tenn., to Jackson, Miss., to encourage black Mississippians to register to vote. Near Hernando, Miss., Meredith is shot. Others take up the march, joined on occasion by King.On June 26, the marchers reach Jackson. During the last days of the march, Stokely Carmichael and other SNCC members clash with King after they encourage the frustrated marchers to embrace the slogan of black power.On Oct. 15, Huey P. Newton and Bob by Seale found the Black Panther Party in Oakland, Calif. They want to create a new political organization to better the conditions of African Americans. Their goals include better employment and educational opportunities as well as improved housing. 1967 On April 4, King makes a speech against the Vietnam War at Riverside Church in New York.On June 12, the Supreme Court hands down a decision in Loving v. Virginia, overturning laws against interracial marriage as unconstitutional.In July, riots break out in Northern cities, including Buffalo, N.Y., Detroit, Mich. and Newark, N.J.On Sept. 1, Thurgood Marshall becomes the first African American appointed to the Supreme Court.On Nov. 7, Cal Stokes is elected mayor of Cleveland, making him the first African American to serve as mayor of a major American city.In November, King announces the Poor Peoples Campaign, a movement to unite the poor and disenfranchised of America, regardless of race or religion. 1968 On April 11,  President Johnson  signs  the Civil Rights Act of 1968  (or the Fair Housing Act) into law, which prohibits discrimination by sellers or renters of property.Exactly a week earlier,  Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated  as he stands on the balcony outside his motel room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tenn. King visited the city to support  African American sanitation workers there whod started a strike on Feb. 11.Between February and May, African American students protest at major universities, including Columbia University and Howard University, demanding changes in faculty, living arrangements, and curriculum.Between May 14 and June 24, over 2500 impoverished Americans set up a camp called Resurrection City in Washington, D.C., under the leadership of the Rev. Ralph Abernathy, who is trying to carry out Kings vision. The protest ends in riots and arrests without the strong leadership of King. 1969 Between April and May, African American students hold protests at universities, including Cornell University and North Carolina A T University in Greensboro, asking for changes such as a Black Studies program and the hiring of African American faculty.On Dec. 4, Fred Hampton, chairman of the  Illinois Black Panther party, is shot and killed by police during a raid. A federal grand jury refutes the polices assertion that they fired upon Hampton only in self-defense, but no one is ever indicted for Hamptons killing.